Islamic Architecture and Construction of Mosques in China

Although, academic literature and scholarship is just beginning to uncover the various aspects of Islam and Muslims in China, it is necessary to examine the impact of Chinese Muslims upon the larger society. More specifically, the distinct and diverse Muslim communities in China have made significant contributions at multiple levels of society. Therefore, it is important to look into the ways in which Muslim communities in China have enriched the dominant landscape. In particular, Islamic architecture and the construction of mosques in various cities in China highlight the preservation and continuation of cultural elements. Furthermore, along with bearing symbolic and religious importance, the Great Mosque located in the city of Xi’an acts as an architectural mechanism that reinforces identity and portrays the presence of Muslim community in contemporary China.

Historically known as Chang’an, today, the city of Xi’an consists of various symbols associated with Chinese imperial power (Gee, 2003). Some prominent examples of imperial rule in Xi’an include the terracotta army, tomb of Emperor Tang Taizong, as well as the burial mound of Qin Shihuangdi, the first emperor of unified China (Dillon, 1996). In addition to these symbols and a Han majority population, the city is home to a smaller ethnic community that indicates Xi’an’s historical connection with Central Asia (Gee, 2003). Not only does this provide evidence of cultural transmission that resulted from trade routes along the Silk Road but it also allowed for the development of the Muslim community in Xi’an and through out various regions in China. In particular, scholars studying historical sources to find the earliest record of Muslims in China have arrived at several possible dates (Dillon, 1999). However, it is generally agreed that Muslims entered China during the Tang Empire and stayed in port cities and trading centres (Dillon, 1999). In his analysis, author Michael Dillon explains that traders and merchants coming into China eventually settled in cities that were large commercial centres (Dillon, 1999). More importantly, these temporary trading outposts evolved into permanent settlements and were the first source of the present Muslim population of China (Dillon, 1999).

In addition to interactions with the leaders of the Tang Dynasty, China’s Muslim population was also affected by the political and social change brought by the Mongols. For instance, with the establishment of the Yuan dynasty, Muslims were given important positions such as tax-collectors, administrators and body guards (Dillon, 1996). Not only were the Muslims considered more reliable than the Han Chinese population but the Mongol period was also an important factor in the creation of Muslim communities in China (Dillon, 1996). Likewise, in Looking West Towards Mecca: Muslim Enclaves in Chinese Frontier Cities, author Piper Gaubatz states that “The Muslim population grew considerably from the thirteenth century onwards with the support of Genghis Khan and his heirs, who… employed and permitted Muslims to travel and settle throughout the empire” (Gaubatz, 2002, p233). As a result of these political developments, Muslim communities were ultimately able to grow in terms of population size, extent and ethnic diversity (Gaubatz, 2002).

Along with the Mongolian period, it is important to mention the changes under the Ming Dynasty. In particular, under the Ming Dynasty, China was a multi-ethnic society and it was during their rule that Muslim population of China first became a permanently settled community (Dillon, 1996). Similarly, different religions including Islam were tolerated which allowed for the establishment of Islamic culture (Dillon, 1996). For example, not only were prominent Islamic scholars like Wang Daiyu able to write influential books and religious treatises but the Nanjing, the Ming capital, as well as other cities such as Xi’an were celebrated as centres of Islamic learning (Dillon, 1996). Therefore, it was these political and societal circumstances that enabled the development of diverse Muslim towns, villages and regions. More specifically, considerable cultural and religious diversity of Muslim communities was reflected in their markets, food and restaurants as well as dressing style (Dillon, 1996).

Islamic practices and Islam’s highly visible culture became central to the identity of various Muslim enclaves including the population concentrated in Xi’an. This was also highlighted in 1781, when Bi Yuan, the governor of Shaanxi outlined the position of the Hui population in his memorial to the Qianlong emperor (Dillon, 1999). He stated, “The Hui population of the provincial capital Xi’an is at least several thousand and there are seven mosques in the city. The majority of Hui in Xi’an live by farming, livestock, rearing and trade” (Dillon, 1999, p46). Importantly, this indicates that not only did the Hui retain their sense of identity but this identity was specifically reinforced through religion, Islamic architecture and the construction of mosques.

Therefore, it is no surprise that today, the Great Mosque in Xi’an holds symbolic and religious importance for Muslims living in the area. Situated in the Muslim Quarter, the Great Mosque is located on Huajue Lane (Hayes, 2009). According to a record inscribed on the stone tablet in the mosque, the construction of the building began about 1,200 years ago in the first year of the Tian Bao reign by Li Longji, the seventh emperor of the Tang Dynasty (Great Mosque, 2008). First, this date is significant because it provides insight into the early construction of mosques in China. It is also important because it indicates the possibility of patronage and the role the ruling elite may have had in the construction of mosques. In addition, the current complex also underwent renovations and expansions during the Ming Dynasty in the late 14^th century (Great Mosque, 2008).

Among others, perhaps the most significant feature of the Great Mosque is its construction. In particular, the building is a brilliant combination of traditional Chinese architecture with Islamic elements. Covering an area of 12,000 square meters and among one of the largest in China, the Great Mosque is laid out with a series of courtyards, pavilions, similar to a traditional temple (Hayes, 2009). Also, the mosque itself is constructed in a specific Chinese style, with a sloping tile roof, elaborate wooden structure of columns, beams and roof brackets (Hayes, 2009). Like these architectural features, it is essential to mention that structural patterns in China were heavily influenced by Chinese beliefs in geomantic practices (Gaubatz, 2002). Consequently, this resulted in limited opportunities for non-Chinese residents to build structures according to their own beliefs as certain restrictions were placed upon the shapes and heights of buildings (Gaubatz, 2002). Similarly, another factor in the adoption of Chinese architectural style was the imperial sponsorship of mosque construction in cities in China (Gee, 2003). Author John Gee also presents a similar point in his article entitled At the Start of the Silk Road lies Xi’an’s Great Mosque. He writes that  “…the extensive repairs to the mosque were undertaken during the Ming and Qing Dynasties by were performed by imperial orders” (Gee, 2003, p45). Ultimately, this sponsorship reflected the relationship between the ruling emperors and their Muslim subjects.

In addition to serving as the place of worship for a community of 60,000 Muslims, the Great Mosque also entails distinct Islamic elements and components that are part of Islamic practice worldwide (Bjorkell, 2008). For example, the prayer hall is the main focus of the mosque and occupies over 1,200 square meters (Dillon, 1996). With the capacity to accommodate up to 1,000 worshippers at one time, the hall also consists of a mihrab (niche) facing the direction of the Ka’ba (Dillon, 1996). There is also a minbar, the platform from which the imam delivers sermons during Friday prayer (Dillon, 1996). Surprisingly, what appears to be a pagoda, turns out to be a minaret, in which is mounted a loudspeaker for calling Muslims to prayer (Gee, 2003). Another feature that highlights the role of Islamic elements in the Great Mosque is Arabic calligraphy. Various rooms, courtyards as well as the prayer hall are decorated with bas-relief woodwork and with different Quranic inscriptions in Arabic (Dillon, 1996). Likewise, commemorative wall hangings from the pilgrimage of hajj can also be found in the Great Mosque (Dillon, 1996). Emphasizing the needs of the local community, Chinese calligraphy and script is also visible in the Great Mosque (Dillon, 1996).

Today, the Great Mosque is among one of the largest and best preserved ancient mosques in China (Dillon, 1996). Having survived the destructive Cultural Revolution in China, it is a tranquil and historic mosque that continues to perform various religious and social functions and has also served Xi’an’s Muslim community for more than a millennium (Gee, 2003). In addition to its aesthetic appeal, the Great Mosque highlights the way in which Muslim communities have made contributions within the larger Chinese society and enriched the dominant landscape. Furthermore, along with begin symbolically and religiously significant, the Great Mosque in Xi’an provides evidence of hybridity by combining traditional Chinese architecture with Islamic elements. Ultimately however, the Great Mosque acts as an architectural mechanism that reinforces identity and portrays the presence of the Muslim community in contemporary China.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

Bjorkell, Stina. (2008). The Great Mosque of Xi’an: at the roots of China’s Muslim Community. Retrieved March, 22, 2011, from http://en.radio86.com/travel/travel-destinations/great-mosque-xian-roots-chinas-muslim-community.

Dillon, Michael. China’s Muslim: Hui Community. Surrey: Curzon Press, 1999.

Dillon, Michael. China’s Muslims. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.

Gaubatz, Piper. “Looking West towards Mecca: Muslim Enclaves in Chinese Frontier Cities. Built Environment 28.3 [‘Islam and Built Form: Studies in Regional Diversity’] (2002): 231-248.

Gee, John. 2003. “Islam and the Middle East in the Far East; At the Start of the Silk Road Lies Xian’s Great Mosque.” The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 22: 45 – 48.

Great Mosque. (2008). Travel China. Retrieved March, 22, 2011, from http://yeschinatour.com/china-guides/china-attractions/great-mosque-xi_an/.

Hayes, Holly. Great Mosque of Xi’an. (2009). Retrieved March, 22, 2011, from http://www.sacred-destinations.com/china/xian-great-mosque.

This is a satellite image that showing the location of the Great Mosque

An image showing the Chinese architecture of the Great Mosque

A plaque inside the mosque with Arabic calligraphy

An entrance to one of the courtyards

The minaret inside the Great Mosque

The entrance to the main prayer hall, with Arabic inscriptions on the two side columns

Entrance to a courtyard showing inscriptions in Arabic and Chinese

A view of the Great Mosque highlighting its beautiful surroundings and landscape

Cultural heritage and cultural property

It appears that the issue of cultural property is a contested one for several reasons. Essentially, within the framework of UNESCO, the destruction of cultural heritage is a punishable crime. Particularly,  “damage to cultural property belonging to any people whatsoever means damage to the cultural heritage of all mankind”, therefore within this context, cultural heritage is of great importance for humanity. Importantly, this issue of protecting and preserving cultural property took centre stage with the destruction of the Bamiyan Buddhas. Also important to mention is that by destroying the Buddhas of Bamiyan, the governing regime violated various international rules and laws. However, in addition to these points, it essential to highlight that the notion of cultural heritage is defined in western terms and thus the protection of such property is largely based on the general interests of what constitutes as international community.

Labels and complexities

The readings for this week highlight some very essential ideas that we have learned last semester.  More importantly, this week’s material indicated the need for continuous critical engagement. In The Clash of Ignorance, Said cleverly points out the dangers of using labels.  In particular, his arguments highlight the way in which labels and cultural assertions are used within academia to mislead and confuse. Along with this, Said demonstrates how specific vocabulary and paradigms are publicized in order to mobilize collective passions. Likewise, Hirschkind and Mahmood’s article give a further and specific explanation of the way in which vast abstractions and simplifications lead to uninformed analysis. Amongst this, perhaps the most important issue that these readings emphasize is the problem of selective and limited representations. Therefore, as students learning about the traditions of the Silk Road, it is necessary for us to be critical of the sources and material that is presented in relation to the communities along the Silk Road.

Nestorians in China

The Nestorian Christians entered China through the Silk Road from the Persian Empire. Importantly, during the Tang Dynasty the Nestorians had many accomplishments. More specifically, they established a Christian presence in China by creating centers of worship and producing Chinese Christian literature and theological vocabulary. Despite all this, it is important to mention that our knowledge of the Nestorians Christians is limited. In particular, there are only limited amount of authentic sources available on the Nestorian church in China during the Tang dynasty. Likewise, western sources contain limited or marginal references of Nestorian Christians in China. Therefore, most of the sources about Nestorians are essentially imperial historical documents from the Tang period. Although, these sources are valuable, it is imperative to highlight that they provide a partial picture about the Nestorian Christian community in China and certain questions related to what has been included or excluded must be raised.

Dunhuang & Patronage

Throughout different points along the Silk Road, questions related to patronage of art seem to have arisen many times. Likewise, the role of patrons is also evident in the caves and temples discovered in the Dunhuang region. In particular, the Magao Ku site consists of a total of 493 caves, many of which were filled with scrolls of religious texts, writings, administrative documents as well as embroidery and paintings. The discovery of these caves and temples serves as a source of knowledge and provides insight into the history of the region. For instance, hundreds upon hundreds of manuscripts include various aspects of political life, economy, military affairs, religion, literature and art. Importantly, under the rule of different dynasties, some caves were transformed and renovated to serve different purposes. For example, some caves were used as workshops, living quarters and shrines. Others were burial caves and highlighted many funerary practices. Furthermore, after the Five Dynasties and Song periods, the region was under the control of the Cao family. They were a powerful family with economic resources and greatly supported projects of building caves and temples. Therefore, this act of patronage by the ruling family greatly impacted the spread of Buddhism and Buddhist art.

The Sogdians

The Sogdians inhabited the region of Transoxiana in Central Asia.  Although, relatively powerful, Sogdian societies and cities developed independently from one another. Importantly, this resulted in the emergence of various, small city-states that consisted of an active mercantile class. Sogdian merchants played a significant role along the Silk Road. In particular, the location of Sogdian cities allowed for the establishment of vast trade networks and served as centres of cultural exchange. Consequently, not only did Sogdian cities flourish, but Sogdian merchants acted as middlemen along the Silk Road. As a trading group, the Sogdians were a significant part of transmitting goods, ideas as well as traditions from one civilization to another. Therefore, along with being economically and commercially successful, the Sogdians culturally influenced the groups and people they interacted with through the creative arts.

Relations and motives….

Various early interactions between China and India highlight the existence of rich and elaborate societies and groups that flourished within these regions. Not only did this result in diplomatic relations between the two states, but it also affected culture through continuous exchange and interaction. In particular, China’s relations with India during the Tang missions (618-907) were multifaceted, complex and unique. Despite minor challenges, it appears that the relationship between the two states was beneficial, especially for the Tang leaders. Along with the challenges, it is essential to investigate the motives for initiating diplomatic relations with India. Chinese sources highlight that certain individuals had greatly impacted and even facilitated discussions and ties with India. Also, it seems that there were various factors and motives for having diplomatic ties with India such as, political, military, and personalistic. Importantly, these interactions indicate the role that specific individuals played in facilitating and furthering these relations for either personal reasons or to extend the political influence of the imperial leaders in China.